Year: 1991 Language: english Author: H. Dale Beggs Genre: Textbook Publisher: OGCI Publications Oil & Gas Consultants International Inc. Tulsa Edition: 3 ISBN: 0-930972-06-6 Format: PDF Quality: Scanned pages + text layer Pages count: 333 Description: Gas Production Operations covers essentially all of the operations involved in moving natural gas from its initial location in the reservoir to Its final destination, including movement of the gas through the reservoir, the piping system, separation tacitines. and finally a compressor. After a thorough treatment of the properties of natural gases and gas condensates, a chapter on reservoir performance discusses the existing methods for calculating reservoir properties and predic ting inflow performance. Flow through the pip ing system , incl uding tubing and gathe ring lines, is discussed in Chapter 4. This chapter also discusses the effects of twophase flow and gas well dewate ring . Chapter 5 outlines the steps involved in selecting gas compressors , incl uding power requirements and number of stages. A chapter on total system analysis descr ibes the total system approach to optimizing the entire produ ction system. Numer ou s examples illustrate the effects ot tubing size, perforations, separator pressure, and compression. The rema in ing chapters co ver information that is essential in the day-to-day operalion of a gas field, including coverage of Ilow measuring , gas condensate reservoir behavior, field operations prob lems, and field gas processing. Detection of abnormal well performance, separator selection, and pred iction of hydrate formation are illustrated .
Contents
1 2 Introduction Geographical Occurrence of Natural Gas 1 Worldwide Occurrence of Natural Gas 1 Occurrence of Natural Gas in the United States 2 Geologicai Occurrence of Natural Gas 2 Modification by Migration and Burial 10 Characteristics of Natural Gas 11 Gas Composition 11 Other Sources of Gaseous Fuel 12 Liquefied Natural Gas 12 Coal Gasification 12 Substitute Natural Gas 12 Gas from Devonian Shaie 13 Tight Formation Gas 13 Gas from Geopressured Aquifers 13 Gas Production Operations 13 References 14 Gas Properties Ideal Gases 15 Early Gas Laws 15 Boyle's Law 15 Charles' Law 15 Avogadro's Law 15 The Ideal Gas Law 16 Ideal Gas Mixtures 17 Dalton's Law 17 Amagat's Law 18 Apparent Molecuiar Weight 18 Real Gases 22 Real Gas Mixtures 22 Gas Formation Volume Factor 30 1 15 v 3 vi Correction for Nonhydrocarbon Impurities 30 Other Equations of State 31 Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation 31 Redlich-Kwong Equation 32 Gas Isothermal Compressibility 33 Ideal Gas Compressibility 33 Real Gas Compressibility 33 Gas Viscosity 34 Carr Method 35 Lee Method 35 Gas-Water Systems 36 Solubility of Natural Gas in Water 37 Solubility of Water in Natural Gas 37 Gas Hydrates 37 Gas-Condensate Systems 39 Phase Behavior 39 Single Component Fluid 39 MUlticomponent Fluids 39 Separation Processes 40 Types of Gas Reservoirs 40 Flash of Equilibrium Separation Calculations 41 Determination of Equilibrium Ratios 44 K-Values from Equations of State 45 Adjustment of Properties for Condensate Mixtures 45 Specific Gravity of Mixtures 46 References 47 Gas Reservoir Performance Reservoir Gas Flow 49 Flow Regime Characteristics 49 Steady-State Flow 49 Unsteady-State Flow 50 Pseudosteady-State Flow 51 Flow Equations 51 Steady-State Flow 51 Pseudosteady-State Flow 53 Unsteady-State Flow 53 Noncircular Reservoirs 57 Rock Permeability 59 Well Deliverability or Capacity 59 Flow-After-Flow Tests 61 Isochronal Testing 62 Modified Isochronal Testing 63 Jones, Blount, and Glaze Method 64 Laminar Inertia Turbulence (LIT) Anaiysis 66 Factors Affecting Inflow Performance 69 Transient Testing 70 Principle of Superposition 70 Superposition in Time 70 Superposition in Space 71 Pressure Drawdown Testing 71 Two-Rate Tests 73 Reservoir Limit Test 73 49 1 4 Pressure Buildup Testing 74 Real Gas Pseudopressure Analysis 77 Gas Reserves 80 Reserve Estimates-Volumetric Method 80 Reserve Estimates-Material Balance Method 81 Energy Plots 82 Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs 83 Well Completion Effects 83 Open-Hole Completions 84 Perforated Completions 84 Perforated, Gravel-Packed Completions 87 Tight gas Well Analysis 87 Guidelines for Gas Well Testing 90 Testing Equipment 90 Sweet Dry Gas 90 Sweet Wet Gas 91 Sour Gas 92 Flow Measuring 92 Pressure Measuring 92 Test Design 92 Problems in Gas-Well Testing 94 Liquid Loading 94 Hydrate Formation 94 Wet Gas Streams 94 Irregular Flow 94 Sour (H2S) Gas 95 Reporting Data 95 References 95 Piping System Performance Basic Flow Equation 97 Laminar Single-Phase Flow 99 Turbulent Single-Phase Flow 99 Smooth-Wall Pipe 99 Rough-Wall Pipe 99 Flow in Wells 104 Static Bottom-Hole Pressure 104 Average Pressure and Temperature Method 104 Cullender and Smith Method 105 Flowing Bottom-Hole Pressure 105 Average Pressure and Temperature Method 106 Cullender and Smith Method 107 Annular Flow 108 Flow In Pipelines 109 Pipelines in Series 111 Pipelines in Parallel 111 Effects of Liquids 112 Well Performance 112 Gravity Adjustment 112 Hagedorn and Brown Method 112 Pipeline Performance 115 Flanigan Method 115 Beggs and Brill Method 116 97 vii 5 6 7 viii Gas Flow Through Restrictions 120 Use of Pressure Traverse Curves 122 Liquid Removal from Gas Wells 122 Minimum Flow Rate for Continuous liquid Removal 122 liquid Removal Methods 126 Beam Pumping Units 126 Plunger Lift 127 Small TUbing 127 Gas-Lift 127 Soap Injection 127 Erosional Velocity 127 Predicting Flowing Temperatures 128 Flowing Temperatures in Wells 128 Flowing Temperatures in Pipelines 129 References 129 Gas Compression Types of Compressors 131 Positive Displacement Compressors 132 Dynamic Compressors 135 Ejector Compressors 136 Compressor Design 137 Design Methods 137 Reciprocating Compressors 138 Power Requirement 139 Multistaging 143 Effect of Clearance 143 Effect of Specific Heat Ratio 144 Centrifugal Compressors 145 References 146 Total System Analysis Tubing and Flowline Size Effect 149 Constant Wellhead Pressure 149 Variable Wellhead Pressure 152 Separator Pressure Effect 153 Compressor Selection 153 Subsurface Safety valve Selection 154 Effect of Perforating Density 156 Effect of.Depletion 158 Relating Performance to Time 159 Nodal Analysis of Injection Wells 160 Analyzing Multiwell Systems 161 Summary 164 Flow Measuring Introduction 165 Orifice Metering 165 Orifice Constants 166 Basic Orifice Factor Fb 166 Pressure-base Factor Fpb 166 131 149 165 8 9 Temperature-base Factor Gb 166 Specific-gravity Factor Fg 166 Flowing-temperature Factor Fff 166 Reynolds-number Factor F, 166 Expansion Factor Y 166 Supercompressibility Factor Fpv 167 Manometer Factor Fm 167 Metering System Design 167 Straightening Vanes 168 Orifice Location 168 Size of Orifice and Meter Run 168 Recorder 169 Chart-Reading Accuracy 171 Conditions Affecting Accuracy 172 Condition of the Orifice Edge 172 Condition of the Meter Tube 172 Pulsation 172 Effect of Water Vapor 172 Wet Gas Measurement 173 Other Metering Methods 173 Orifice Well Tester 173 Critical-flow Prover 173 Pitot Tube 174 Turbine Meters 174 References 188 Gas-Condensate Reservoirs Well Testing and Sampling 190 Well Conditioning and Sampling Procedures 191 Laboratory Testing 191 Calculation of Initial In-Place Gas and Condensate 191 Compositional Analysis Not Available 192 Compositional Analysis Available 193 Recovery Estimates 194 Laboratory Simulation 194 Flash Calculations 197 Empirical Correlations for Estimating Performance 198 Effects of Water Drive 199 Gas Cycling 199 Areal Sweep Efficiency (EA ) 199 Vertical Sweep Efficiency (Evl 199 Displacement Efficiency (ED) 200 Reservoir Cycling Efficiency (ER) 200 Feasibiliy of Gas Cycling 200 References 200 Field Operation Problems Pressure-Cumulative Production Plots 201 p/Z versus Gp Plots 201 Energy Plots 202 Rate Versus Time Plots 202 189 201 ix x 10 Hydrate Formation 205 Causes, Occurrence, and Prediction 205 Hydrate Formation in the Flow String and Surface Lines 207 Hydrate Formation in Flow Provers, Orifices, and Back-Pressure Regulators 208 Hydrate Control 210 Sour Gas Production 210 Corrosion 210 Corrosion Control with Inhibitors 211 The Short Batch Method of Application 211 The Tubing Displacement Method 212 Methods of Inhibitor Application Using Nitrogen Gas 212 Method of Continuous Treatment with Inhibitors 212 Formation Squeeze 214 Sulfur Deposition 215 Safety 215 Well Testing 217 Gas Processing Field Treatment of Natural Gas 219 Types of Separators 220 Separator Controls 221 Stage Separation 221 Low Temperature Separation 224 Condensate Stabilization 225 Gas Plant Operations 226 liquid Hydrocarbon Recovery 227 Compression Processing 227 Absorption Processing 229 Cryogenic Processing 230 Adsorption Processing 230 Gas Dehydration 232 Gas Sweetening 233 References 234 Appendices A. Equilibrium Constants for 5000 psia Convergence Pressure 235 B. Matlhews-Brons-Hazebrook Curves for Various Reservoir Shapes 249 C. Mollier Diagrams for Natural Gas 255 D. Computer Subroutines 259 E. Pressure Traverse Curves 281 F. Summary of Equations 295 Index 219 235 305
5
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Gas Production Operations
Language: english
Author: H. Dale Beggs
Genre: Textbook
Publisher: OGCI Publications Oil & Gas Consultants International Inc. Tulsa
Edition: 3
ISBN: 0-930972-06-6
Format: PDF
Quality: Scanned pages + text layer
Pages count: 333
Description: Gas Production Operations covers essentially all of the operations involved in moving natural gas from its initial location in the reservoir to Its final destination, including movement of the gas through the reservoir, the piping system, separation tacitines. and finally a compressor. After a thorough treatment of the properties of natural gases and gas condensates, a chapter on reservoir performance discusses the existing methods for calculating reservoir properties and predic ting inflow performance.
Flow through the pip ing system , incl uding tubing and gathe ring lines, is discussed in Chapter 4. This chapter also discusses the effects of twophase flow and gas well dewate ring . Chapter 5 outlines the steps involved in selecting gas compressors , incl uding power requirements and number of stages.
A chapter on total system analysis descr ibes the total system approach to optimizing the entire produ ction system. Numer ou s examples illustrate the effects ot tubing size, perforations, separator pressure, and compression. The rema in ing chapters co ver information that is essential in the day-to-day operalion of a gas field, including coverage of Ilow measuring , gas condensate reservoir behavior, field operations prob lems, and field gas processing. Detection of abnormal well performance, separator selection, and pred iction of hydrate formation are illustrated .
Contents
12
Introduction
Geographical Occurrence of Natural Gas 1
Worldwide Occurrence of Natural Gas 1
Occurrence of Natural Gas in the United States 2
Geologicai Occurrence of Natural Gas 2
Modification by Migration and Burial 10
Characteristics of Natural Gas 11
Gas Composition 11
Other Sources of Gaseous Fuel 12
Liquefied Natural Gas 12
Coal Gasification 12
Substitute Natural Gas 12
Gas from Devonian Shaie 13
Tight Formation Gas 13
Gas from Geopressured Aquifers 13
Gas Production Operations 13
References 14
Gas Properties
Ideal Gases 15
Early Gas Laws 15
Boyle's Law 15
Charles' Law 15
Avogadro's Law 15
The Ideal Gas Law 16
Ideal Gas Mixtures 17
Dalton's Law 17
Amagat's Law 18
Apparent Molecuiar Weight 18
Real Gases 22
Real Gas Mixtures 22
Gas Formation Volume Factor 30
1
15
v
3
vi
Correction for Nonhydrocarbon Impurities 30
Other Equations of State 31
Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation 31
Redlich-Kwong Equation 32
Gas Isothermal Compressibility 33
Ideal Gas Compressibility 33
Real Gas Compressibility 33
Gas Viscosity 34
Carr Method 35
Lee Method 35
Gas-Water Systems 36
Solubility of Natural Gas in Water 37
Solubility of Water in Natural Gas 37
Gas Hydrates 37
Gas-Condensate Systems 39
Phase Behavior 39
Single Component Fluid 39
MUlticomponent Fluids 39
Separation Processes 40
Types of Gas Reservoirs 40
Flash of Equilibrium Separation Calculations 41
Determination of Equilibrium Ratios 44
K-Values from Equations of State 45
Adjustment of Properties for Condensate Mixtures 45
Specific Gravity of Mixtures 46
References 47
Gas Reservoir Performance
Reservoir Gas Flow 49
Flow Regime Characteristics 49
Steady-State Flow 49
Unsteady-State Flow 50
Pseudosteady-State Flow 51
Flow Equations 51
Steady-State Flow 51
Pseudosteady-State Flow 53
Unsteady-State Flow 53
Noncircular Reservoirs 57
Rock Permeability 59
Well Deliverability or Capacity 59
Flow-After-Flow Tests 61
Isochronal Testing 62
Modified Isochronal Testing 63
Jones, Blount, and Glaze Method 64
Laminar Inertia Turbulence (LIT) Anaiysis 66
Factors Affecting Inflow Performance 69
Transient Testing 70
Principle of Superposition 70
Superposition in Time 70
Superposition in Space 71
Pressure Drawdown Testing 71
Two-Rate Tests 73
Reservoir Limit Test 73
49
1
4
Pressure Buildup Testing 74
Real Gas Pseudopressure Analysis 77
Gas Reserves 80
Reserve Estimates-Volumetric Method 80
Reserve Estimates-Material Balance Method 81
Energy Plots 82
Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs 83
Well Completion Effects 83
Open-Hole Completions 84
Perforated Completions 84
Perforated, Gravel-Packed Completions 87
Tight gas Well Analysis 87
Guidelines for Gas Well Testing 90
Testing Equipment 90
Sweet Dry Gas 90
Sweet Wet Gas 91
Sour Gas 92
Flow Measuring 92
Pressure Measuring 92
Test Design 92
Problems in Gas-Well Testing 94
Liquid Loading 94
Hydrate Formation 94
Wet Gas Streams 94
Irregular Flow 94
Sour (H2S) Gas 95
Reporting Data 95
References 95
Piping System Performance
Basic Flow Equation 97
Laminar Single-Phase Flow 99
Turbulent Single-Phase Flow 99
Smooth-Wall Pipe 99
Rough-Wall Pipe 99
Flow in Wells 104
Static Bottom-Hole Pressure 104
Average Pressure and Temperature Method 104
Cullender and Smith Method 105
Flowing Bottom-Hole Pressure 105
Average Pressure and Temperature Method 106
Cullender and Smith Method 107
Annular Flow 108
Flow In Pipelines 109
Pipelines in Series 111
Pipelines in Parallel 111
Effects of Liquids 112
Well Performance 112
Gravity Adjustment 112
Hagedorn and Brown Method 112
Pipeline Performance 115
Flanigan Method 115
Beggs and Brill Method 116
97
vii
5
6
7
viii
Gas Flow Through Restrictions 120
Use of Pressure Traverse Curves 122
Liquid Removal from Gas Wells 122
Minimum Flow Rate for Continuous liquid Removal 122
liquid Removal Methods 126
Beam Pumping Units 126
Plunger Lift 127
Small TUbing 127
Gas-Lift 127
Soap Injection 127
Erosional Velocity 127
Predicting Flowing Temperatures 128
Flowing Temperatures in Wells 128
Flowing Temperatures in Pipelines 129
References 129
Gas Compression
Types of Compressors 131
Positive Displacement Compressors 132
Dynamic Compressors 135
Ejector Compressors 136
Compressor Design 137
Design Methods 137
Reciprocating Compressors 138
Power Requirement 139
Multistaging 143
Effect of Clearance 143
Effect of Specific Heat Ratio 144
Centrifugal Compressors 145
References 146
Total System Analysis
Tubing and Flowline Size Effect 149
Constant Wellhead Pressure 149
Variable Wellhead Pressure 152
Separator Pressure Effect 153
Compressor Selection 153
Subsurface Safety valve Selection 154
Effect of Perforating Density 156
Effect of.Depletion 158
Relating Performance to Time 159
Nodal Analysis of Injection Wells 160
Analyzing Multiwell Systems 161
Summary 164
Flow Measuring
Introduction 165
Orifice Metering 165
Orifice Constants 166
Basic Orifice Factor Fb 166
Pressure-base Factor Fpb 166
131
149
165
8
9
Temperature-base Factor Gb 166
Specific-gravity Factor Fg 166
Flowing-temperature Factor Fff 166
Reynolds-number Factor F, 166
Expansion Factor Y 166
Supercompressibility Factor Fpv 167
Manometer Factor Fm 167
Metering System Design 167
Straightening Vanes 168
Orifice Location 168
Size of Orifice and Meter Run 168
Recorder 169
Chart-Reading Accuracy 171
Conditions Affecting Accuracy 172
Condition of the Orifice Edge 172
Condition of the Meter Tube 172
Pulsation 172
Effect of Water Vapor 172
Wet Gas Measurement 173
Other Metering Methods 173
Orifice Well Tester 173
Critical-flow Prover 173
Pitot Tube 174
Turbine Meters 174
References 188
Gas-Condensate Reservoirs
Well Testing and Sampling 190
Well Conditioning and Sampling Procedures 191
Laboratory Testing 191
Calculation of Initial In-Place Gas and Condensate 191
Compositional Analysis Not Available 192
Compositional Analysis Available 193
Recovery Estimates 194
Laboratory Simulation 194
Flash Calculations 197
Empirical Correlations for Estimating Performance 198
Effects of Water Drive 199
Gas Cycling 199
Areal Sweep Efficiency (EA ) 199
Vertical Sweep Efficiency (Evl 199
Displacement Efficiency (ED) 200
Reservoir Cycling Efficiency (ER) 200
Feasibiliy of Gas Cycling 200
References 200
Field Operation Problems
Pressure-Cumulative Production Plots 201
p/Z versus Gp Plots 201
Energy Plots 202
Rate Versus Time Plots 202
189
201
ix
x
10
Hydrate Formation 205
Causes, Occurrence, and Prediction 205
Hydrate Formation in the Flow String and Surface Lines 207
Hydrate Formation in Flow Provers, Orifices, and
Back-Pressure Regulators 208
Hydrate Control 210
Sour Gas Production 210
Corrosion 210
Corrosion Control with Inhibitors 211
The Short Batch Method of Application 211
The Tubing Displacement Method 212
Methods of Inhibitor Application Using Nitrogen Gas 212
Method of Continuous Treatment with Inhibitors 212
Formation Squeeze 214
Sulfur Deposition 215
Safety 215
Well Testing 217
Gas Processing
Field Treatment of Natural Gas 219
Types of Separators 220
Separator Controls 221
Stage Separation 221
Low Temperature Separation 224
Condensate Stabilization 225
Gas Plant Operations 226
liquid Hydrocarbon Recovery 227
Compression Processing 227
Absorption Processing 229
Cryogenic Processing 230
Adsorption Processing 230
Gas Dehydration 232
Gas Sweetening 233
References 234
Appendices
A. Equilibrium Constants for 5000 psia Convergence Pressure 235
B. Matlhews-Brons-Hazebrook Curves for Various Reservoir Shapes 249
C. Mollier Diagrams for Natural Gas 255
D. Computer Subroutines 259
E. Pressure Traverse Curves 281
F. Summary of Equations 295
Index
219
235
305
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